Preferred Scientific Name

Azolla pinnata

Preferred Common Name

mosquito fern

International Common Names

English: African azolla; feathered mosquito fern; ferny azolla; pinnate mosquito fern; water velvet

Local Common Names

Australia: red azolla; red water fern; water moss

Germany: Afrikanischer Algenfarn; Gefiederter Algenfarn

Japan: aka-ukikusa

Vietnam: beo-dau

Summary of Invasiveness

pinnata can spread very quickly forming dense vegetative masses on areas of still water. This in turn limits the light available to other aquatic plants and oxygen used by other aquatic life. In New Zealand it has had a detrimental impact on the native species A. rubra (Owen, 1997). It is included on the federal noxious weed list for the USA (USDA-NRCS, 2004).

Distribution

Azolla pinnata is locally distributed in its native range of Africa and Madagascar, India, Southeast Asia, China and Japan, Malaysia and the Philippines, the New Guinea mainland and Australia (Croft, 1986). The native ranges of the three subspecies is given in USDA-ARS (2005) as: tropical Africa, southern Africa and Madagascar for subsp. africana; tropical Asia, China and Japan for subsp. asiatica; and Australia and New Caledonia for subsp. pinnata.

Distribution Table and Maps

The distribution in the summary table and maps below is based on all the information available, as listed in the ISC.

Country	Distribution	Origin	Invasive	References
ASIA
Bangladesh	Restricted distribution	Native		Shahjahan et al., 1980; EPPO, 2014
Brunei Darussalam	Present			Waterhouse, 1993
Cambodia	Restricted distribution			Waterhouse, 1993; EPPO, 2014
China	Restricted distribution	Native		Croft, 1986; EPPO, 2014
-Anhui	Present	Native		USDA-ARS, 2005
-Fujian	Present	Native		USDA-ARS, 2005
-Henan	Present	Native		USDA-ARS, 2005
-Hubei	Present	Native		USDA-ARS, 2005
-Jiangsu	Present	Native		USDA-ARS, 2005
-Jiangxi	Present	Native		USDA-ARS, 2005
-Sichuan	Present	Native		USDA-ARS, 2005
-Zhejiang	Present	Native		USDA-ARS, 2005
India	Restricted distribution			EPPO, 2014
-Assam	Widespread	Native		Devashish & Kar Barbhuiya, 2001
-Bihar	Widespread	Native		Srivastava & Amarjeet Singh, 1984
-Gujarat	Widespread	Native		Sreenivas & Rana, 1992
-Jammu and Kashmir	Widespread	Native		Dutta et al., 1991
-Kerala	Widespread	Native		Thomas, 1976; Madhusoodanan et al., 1993
-Odisha	Present	Native		Satapathy & Chand, 1984
Indonesia	Restricted distribution			Waterhouse, 1993; USDA-ARS, 2005; EPPO, 2014
Japan	Restricted distribution	Native		Croft, 1986
Korea, DPR	Restricted distribution			Dostálek et al., 1989
Laos	Present			Waterhouse, 1993
Malaysia	Restricted distribution	Native		Waterhouse, 1993; Mansor & Sam, 1992
Myanmar	Present			Waterhouse, 1993; USDA-ARS, 2005
Pakistan	Restricted distribution			USDA-ARS, 2005; EPPO, 2014
Philippines	Restricted distribution	Native		Bravo, 1991; Waterhouse, 1993; EPPO, 2014
Sri Lanka	Restricted distribution	Native		Weerakoon & Gunewardena, 1983
Taiwan	Present	Native		USDA-ARS, 2005
Thailand	Restricted distribution	Native		Takara, 1981; Waterhouse, 1993; EPPO, 2014
Vietnam	Restricted distribution	Native		Waterhouse, 1993; Thuoc et al., 1978; Croft, 1986;EPPO, 2014
AFRICA
Angola	Restricted distribution	Native		Dyer et al., 1963; Exell & Wild, 1960
Botswana	Restricted distribution	Native		Dyer et al., 1963; EPPO, 2014
Burundi	Restricted distribution	Native		Dyer et al., 1963
Cameroon	Restricted distribution	Native		Dyer et al., 1963
Central African Republic	Restricted distribution	Native		Dyer et al., 1963
Congo	Restricted distribution	Native		Dyer et al., 1963
Congo Democratic Republic	Restricted distribution	Native		Dyer et al., 1963; Exell & Wild, 1960; EPPO, 2014
Côte d’Ivoire	Restricted distribution	Native		Dyer et al., 1963
Egypt	Restricted distribution	Native		Galal & El-Ghandour, 2000
Gabon	Restricted distribution	Native		Dyer et al., 1963
Guinea	Restricted distribution	Native		Dyer et al., 1963
Guinea-Bissau	Restricted distribution	Native		Dyer et al., 1963
Kenya	Restricted distribution	Native		Dyer et al., 1963; Johns, 1991
Liberia	Restricted distribution	Native		Dyer et al., 1963; Johns, 1991
Madagascar	Restricted distribution	Native		Johns, 1991; EPPO, 2014
Mozambique	Restricted distribution	Native		Johns, 1991
Nigeria	Restricted distribution	Native		Johns, 1991
Rwanda	Restricted distribution	Native		Dyer et al., 1963; Johns, 1991
Senegal	Restricted distribution	Native		Dyer et al., 1963; Johns, 1991
Sierra Leone	Restricted distribution	Native		Dyer et al., 1963
South Africa	Restricted distribution	Native		Dyer et al., 1963; Hill, 1998; Johns, 1991
Tanzania	Restricted distribution	Native		Dyer et al., 1963
Uganda	Restricted distribution	Native		Dyer et al., 1963; Johns, 1991
Zambia	Restricted distribution	Native		Dyer et al., 1963; Johns, 1991
OCEANIA
Australia	Restricted distribution	Native		Croft, 1986; EPPO, 2014
-Australian Northern Territory	Restricted distribution	Native		Chapman et al., 1981; USDA-ARS, 2005
-New South Wales	Present	Native		USDA-ARS, 2005
-Queensland	Present	Native		USDA-ARS, 2005
-Victoria	Present	Native		USDA-ARS, 2005
New Caledonia	Present	Native		USDA-ARS, 2005
New Zealand	Restricted distribution	Introduced	Invasive	Owen, 1997; EPPO, 2014
Papua New Guinea	Restricted distribution	Native		Croft, 1985; Croft, 1986

History of Introduction and Spread

Introductions to new countries are assumed to have been through horticultural or ornamental trade with the aquarium industry.

Risk of Introduction

There is a low risk of spread to non-tropical and sub-tropical areas, and spread between waterbodies within natural areas appears to be regulated by deliberate introduction by man for agricultural purposes. Once in a waterbody, vegetative fragments and spores can spread easily downstream, and be carried with floodwaters to colonize new areas.

Notes on Natural Enemies

Calilung and Lit (1986) reported studies on a broad range of insect fauna associated with Azolla in the Philippines, with several species causing frond damage to several Azolla species. It was suggested that herbivory prevented Azolla species from becoming weeds in rice paddies.

Dath and Singh (1998) reported that A. pinnata was very susceptible to the fungus Rhizoctonia solani [Thanatephorus cucumeris], and Shahjahan et al. (1980) reported inhibition of growth of A. pinnata by Sclerotium rolfsii [Corticium rolfsii] and Rhizoctonia sp. These fungal pathogens are opportunists and also attack a range of crop plants. Fannah (1987) reported a completed life cycle of Elophila africalis on A. pinnata in Sierra Leone which was followed up by Roberts et al. (1998).

Sands and Kassulke (1986) reported oviposition by females of Paulinia acuminata after feeding on A. pinnata. However, P. acuminata was introduced into Africa, India and Fiji for the control of Salvinia molesta but is not host specific and did not contribute significantly to control (Julien and Griffiths, 1998). Therefore, it is unlikely that it is an important constraint on A. pinnata.

The frond-feeding weevil Stenopelmus rufinasus was imported into quarantine for testing as a potential natural enemy for the A. filiculoides in South Africa (Hill, 1998). Both the adults and larvae severely reduced A. filiculoides in the laboratory.

Of 31 plant species in 19 families tested, adult feeding, oviposition and larval development were only recorded on the Azolla species (A. filiculoides, A. pinnata subsp. poss. asiatica, A. pinnata subsp. africana and A. nilotica). A. filiculoides was the most suitable host for the weevil. Low adult emergence from A. nilotica and A. pinnata subsp. africana would probably prevent the weevil from establishing on them in the field. A. pinnata subsp. poss. asiatica supported greater development. Impact

The presence of A. pinnata on the US federal Noxious Weeds List implies there is a risk of significant economic impact from this species. There are no data on actual costs to activities restricted by the presence of this species, although it will interfere with navigation, boating, irrigation, recreation, angling and bathing, and there will be costs associated with control.

References

Abdel-Hafez AM, Zidan ZH, Abdel-Megeed MI, El-Emam MA, Ragab FM, El-Deeb FA, 1997. Effect of the plant Azolla pinnata on survival, growth rate, fecundity and hatchability of egg-masses of Biomphalaria alexandrina snails. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology, 27(3):825-841.

Basak B, Pramanik AH, Rahman MS, 2002. Azolla (Azolla pinnata) as a feed ingredient in broiler ration. International Journal of Poultry Science 1:29-34.

Basudha C, Vishwanath W, 1997. Formulated feed based on aquatic weed Azolla and fish meal for rearing medium carp Osteobrama belangeri (Valenciennes). Journal of Aquaculture in the Tropics, 12(3):155-164; 21 ref.

Bravo MVA, 1991. Aquatic weeds in the Philippines: a general assessment of scenario. BIOTROP Special Publication, No. 40:47-49; [A symposium on aquatic weed management held in Bogor, Indonesia, 15-17 May 1990].

Calilung VJ, Lit IL Jr, 1986. Studies on the insect fauna and other invertebrates associated with Azolla spp. Philippine Agriculturist, 69(4):513-520

Chapman AL, Shaw W, Renaud S, 1981. Effect of temperature on the growth and acetylene reduction activity of Azolla pinnata from the Darwin region of northern Australia. Journal of the Australian Institute of Agricultural Science, 47(4):223-225.

Cohen MF, Meziane T, Tsuchiya M, Yamasaki H, 2002. Feeding deterrence of Azolla in relation to deoxyanthocyanin and fatty acid composition. Aquatic Botany, 74(2):181-187.

Cohen MF, Williams J, Yamasaki H, 2002. Biodegradation of diesel fuel by an Azolla-derived bacterial consortium. Journal of Environmental Science and Health. Part A, Toxic/Hazardous Substances & Environmental Engineering, 37(9):1593-1606.

Croft JR, 1985. Ferns and Fern Allies. In: Leach GJ, Osborne PL, eds. Freshwater Plants of Papua New Guinea. University of Papua New Guinea, 33-74.

Croft JR, 1986. The aquatic Pteridophytes of New Guinea. Australian National Herbarium, Centre for Plant Biodiversity Research.http://www.anbg.gov.au/projects/fern/aquatic/.

Dath AP, Singh DP, 1998. Effect of rice Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn infection on the biomass of different Azolla species. Oryza, 35(2):186-187; 2 ref.

Devashish Kar, Barbhuiya MH, 2001. Ecology of aquatic macrophytes of Chatla Haor, a floodplain wetland in Cachar district of Assam. Environment and Ecology, 19(1):231-233.

Dostálek J, Kolbek J, Jarolímek I, 1989. A few taxa new to the flora of North Korea. Preslia, 61(4):323-327; 12 ref.

Dutta SPS, Kumar S, Kumari V, 1991. Ecology of macrophytic vegetation in Kunjwani Pond, Jammu. Journal of Nature Conservation, 3(2):133-139.

Dyer RA, Codd LE, Rycroft HB, 1963. Flora of Southern Africa-Volume 26. Myrsinaceae, Primulaceae, Plumbaginaceae, Sapotaceae, Ebenaceae, Oleaceae, Salvadoraceae, Loganiaceae, Gentianaceae, and Apocynaceae. 1963. pp. vii + 307. Many refs. Price Rands 4.60. Government Printer, Pretoria.

EPPO, 2014. PQR database. Paris, France: European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization.http://www.eppo.int/DATABASES/pqr/pqr.htm

Exell AW, Wild H, 1960. Flora Zambesiaca, Vol. 1. London, UK: Crown Agents for Oversea Governments and Administrations.

Fannah SJ, 1987. Elophila sp.? africalis Hampson (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae): a new pest of Azolla in Sierra Leone. International Rice Research Newsletter, 12(3):30

Galal YGM, El-Ghandour IA, 2000. Biological nitrogen fixation, mycorrhizal infection and Azolla symbiosis in two rice cultivars in Egypt. Egyptian Journal of Microbiology, 35(4):445-461; 27 ref.

Gopal GV, 2000. Azolla pinnata r.br. Pteridophyte; Salviniales (Azollaceae) in the management of lake agro ecosystem. In: Ramachandra TV, Rajasekara Murthy C, Nhalya, N, eds. Proceedings of Lake 2000. International Symposium on Restoration of Lakes and Wetlands, 27th to 29th November 2000, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. India.

Hall JW, 1969. Studies on fossil Azolla. American Journal of Botany, 56:1173-1180.

Hill MP, 1998. Life history and laboratory host range of Stenopelmus rufinasus, a natural enemy for Azolla filiculoides in South Africa. BioControl, 43(2):215-224; 25 ref.

Hossain M, Ahmad MU, Ahmed N, Hossain MA, Alim MA, 2002. A study on control of root knot nematode (Meloidogyne javanica) of wheat. Indian Agriculturist, 46:121-128.

Janiya JD, Moody K, 1984. Use of Azolla to suppress weeds in transplanted rice. Tropical Pest Management, 30(1):1-6

Johns RJ, 1991. Pteridophytes of Tropical East Africa. Kew, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens.

Julien MH, Griffiths MW, 1998. Biological Control of Weeds: a World Catalogue of Agents and their Target Weeds. Fourth Edition. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Kannaiyan S, Thangaraju M, Oblisami G, 1983. Effect of Azolla inoculation on weed growth in wetland rice. International Rice Research Newsletter, 8(4):21

Kaur H, 2001. Biomass production of Azolla pinnata R. BR. in contaminated soils of Punjab (India). 5th International Biomass Conference of the Americas, Florida 2001.

Knouse JA, 1997. Genus Azolla: the mosquito ferns.  http://www.jaknouse.athens.oh.us/ferns/g_azol.html#top.

Konar RN, Kapoor RK, 1974. Anatomical studies on Azolla pinnata. Phytomorphology, 22:211-223.

Konar RN, Kapoor RK, 1975. Embryology of Azolla pinnata. Phytomorphology, 24:228-261.

Kundu AL, Chatterjee BN, 1985. Azolla as a substitute of nitrogen fertiliser for rice. Oryza, 22(2):119k-119m

Loyal DS, 1974. Chromosome size and structure in some heterosporous ferns with a bearing on evolutionary problems. In: Kachroo P, ed. Advancing Frontiers in Cytogenetics, 293-298.

Loyal DS, Gollen AK, Ratra R, 1982. Morphological and cytotaxonomic observations on Azolla pinnata. Fern Gazette, 12:230-232.

Lumpkin TA, Plucknett DL, 1980. Azolla: botany, physiology, and use as a green manure. Economic Botany, 34(2):111-153.

Madhusoodanan PV, Leena KR, Santhosh Nampy, 1993. Taxonomy and ecology of the aquatic pteridophytes of Kerala, south India. Journal of Economic and Taxonomic Botany, 17(3):635-643.

Malek MA, Ahmed MU, Ansari TH, 1996. Effect of soil amendment with Azolla (Azolla pinnata) on control of root-knot of brinjal. Bangladesh Journal of Plant Pathology, 12(1/2):59-60; 18 ref.

Mansor M, Sam SK, 1992. The competition between three species of small-leaf floating plants which are frequently found in rice growing areas of northern Peninsula Malaysia. Proceedings of the 3rd international conference on plant protection in the tropics, Genting Highlands, Malaysia, 20-23 March 1990., Vol. 6:242-246.

Moore AW, 1969. Azolla: biology and agronomic significance. Botanical Review, 35:17-35.

Nirmala Gunapala, Amarasiri SL, 1983. Effect of addition of phosphorus on the growth of Azolla.. Tropical Agriculturist, 139:85-95.

Owen SJ, 1997. Ecological weeds on conservation land in New Zealand: a database. Wellington, New Zealand: Department of Conservation.

Patel HR, Patel DJ, Patel CC, Thakar NA, 1994. Effectivity of Clerodendron inerme L., Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don. and Azolla pinnata R. Br. for management of root-knot nematodes in okra. Pakistan Journal of Nematology, 12(1):95-98; 9 ref.

Ramakrishnan S, Gunasekaran CR, Vadivelu S, 1996. Effect of bio-fertilizers Azolla and Azospirillum on root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of okra. Indian Journal of Nematology, 26(2):127-130; 9 ref.

Reed CF, 1965. Distribution of Salvinia and Azolla in South America and Africa in connection with studies for control by insects. Phytologia, 12:121-130.

Reyes OS, Fermin AC, 2003. Terrestrial leaf meals or freshwater aquatic fern as potential feed ingredients for farmed abalone Haliotis asinina (Linnaeus 1758). Aquaculture Research, 34(8):593-599.

Roberts JMF, Hance T, Hove Cvan, 1998. Fecundity and ovipositional preference of Elophila africalis on Azolla: test for host plant susceptibility. Journal of African Zoology, 112(3):215-222; 16 ref.

Sands DPA, Kassulke RC, 1986. Assessment of Paulinia acuminata (Orthoptera: Acrididae) for the biological control of Salvinia molesta in Australia. Entomophaga, 31(1):11-17.

Satapathy KB, 1995. Comparative efficiency of Azolla and chemical nitrogen fertilizers on growth and yield of rice. Current Agricultural Research, 8(2):49-53; 9 ref.

Satapathy KB, Chand PK, 1984. Studies on the ecology of Azolla pinnata R. Br. of Orissa. Journal of the Indian Botanical Society, 63:44-52.

Satapathy KB, Singh PK, 1985. Control of weeds by Azolla in rice. Journal of Aquatic Plant Management, 23:40-42.

Sen U, 1983. Stomatal structure and stomatogenesis in Azolla pinnata R. Brown. Annals of Botany, 52(2):201-204.

Sevichan PJ, Madhusoodanan PV, 1995. Comparative performance of three species of Azolla as a biofertilizer with different levels of chemical nitrogen fertilizer in the paddy fields. Journal of Economic and Taxonomic Botany, 19(3):683-686.

Shahjahan AKM, Miah SA, Nahar MA, Majid MA, 1980. Fungi attack Azolla in Bangladesh. International Rice Research Newsletter, 5(1):17-18

Sreenivas SS, Rana BC, 1992. Studies on macrophytic weed infestation in certain ponds of central Gujarat. New Agriculturist, 3(1):109-110.

Srivastava ON, Amarjeet Singh, 1984. Biomass production of Azolla pinnata at Ranchi. Indian Journal of Ecology, 11(2):337-338

Takara J, 1981. Insect pests on Azolla pinnata at Bangkhen, Thailand. International Rice Research Newsletter, 6(4):12-13

Tewari JP, Kalpana Singh, Pragati Srivastava, 2001. Inhibition of cucumber green mottle mosaic virus by extract of some ferns. Journal of Living World, 8(1):28-32; 8 ref.

Thakar NA, Patel CC, Patel HR, 1988. Effect of extracts of Azolla pinnata on egg hatching of root knot nematodes Meloidogyne incognita and M. javanica. Madras Agricultural Journal, 75(7-8):297-299; 6 ref.

Thomas KJ, 1976. Observations on the aquatic vegetation of Trivandrum, Kerala. Aquatic weeds in S. E. Asia. Proceedings of a Regional Seminar on Noxious Aquatic Vegetation, New Delhi 1973. W. Junk. The Hague Netherlands, 99-102

Thuoc NH, Tinh NH, Nhu DX, Thong NW, Thach HN, 1978. Anh huo’ng cua anh sang va nhiet do den sinh truong va quang hop cua beo dau. (Vliyanie sveta i temperatury na rost i fotosintez Azolla pinnata.) Khoa Hoc va Kythuat Nong Napier, 2:91-95.

USDA-ARS, 2005. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, USA. http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl.

USDA-NRCS, 2004. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.5. Baton Rouge, USA: National Plant Data Center. http://plants.usda.gov.

Wall H, 1994. Water Facts – Control of Azolla (Red Water Fern). Queensland, Australia: Rural Water Advisory Services, Department of Natural Resources.

Waterhouse DF, 1993. The Major Arthropod Pests and Weeds of Agriculture in Southeast Asia. ACIAR Monograph No. 21. Canberra, Australia: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, 141 pp.

Weerakoon WL, Gunewardena SDIE, 1983. Rice field weed flora of Sri Lanka. Tropical Agriculturist, 139:1-14; 26 ref.

Zidan ZH, Abdel-Hafez AM, Abdel-Megeed MI, El-Emam MA, Ragab FM, El-Deeb FA, 1998. Susceptibility of Biomphalaria alexandrina to the plant Azolla pinnata and some herbicides in relation to infection with Schistosoma mansoni miracidia. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology, 28(1):89-100.